State of Emergency on Childhood Trauma

State of Emergency on Childhood Trauma

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Author(s): Ronald A. Hummons

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DOI: 10.18483/ijSci.2667 30 156 1-27 Volume 12 - Mar 2023

References

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  395. Jimenez
  396. supra note 318, at 1. 325. Jimenez et al., supra note 318
  397. & Allwood, Widom
  398. , p. 238 - 278
  399. & Mears, Sinnick
  400. Adjusted to 2017 dollars, using The American Institute of Economic Research (AIER) Cost of Living Calculator
  401. PA. STATE INTERAGENCY COORDINATING COUNCIL FOR EARLY INTERVENTION, ANNUAL REPORT SUBMITTED TO THE GOVERNOR, volume 2, p. 2015 - 2016
  402. & Macmillan, Hagan
  403. Crossref
  404. & Ashenfelter, Rouse
  405. Crossref
  406. & Dale, Krueger
  407. Crossref
  408. & Day, Newburger
  409. , volume 316
  410. Sewell & Hauser
  411. Crossref
  412. Grubb
  413. Ross Macmillan
  414. Adolescent Victimization and Income Deficits in Adulthood: Rethinking the Costs of Criminal Violence from a Life-Course Perspective
  415. 38 CRIMINOLOGY, volume 553
  416. Posted: 2000
  417. Crossref
  418. Currie & Widom, supra note 36, at 117; Foster et al., supra note 86
  419. Deborah Gorman-Smith & Patrick Tolan
  420. The Role of Exposure to Community Violence and Developmental Problems Among Inner-City Youth, 10 DEV
  421. PSYCHOPATHOLOGY, volume 101
  422. Posted: 1998
  423. & Currie, Widom
  424. Macmillan
  425. , volume 330
  426. & Currie, Widom
  427. Zielinski
  428. Crossref
  429. Daniel B Hernman
  430. Adverse Childhood Experiences: Are They Risk Factors for Adult Homelessness?, 87 AM
  431. J. PUB. HEALTH, volume 249
  432. Posted: 1997
  433. Crossref
  434. & Mears, Siennick
  435. Crossref
  436. & Macmillan, Hagan
  437. ; Zielinski, Liu
  438. Crossref
  439. Xiangming Fang
  440. The Economic Burden of Child Maltreatment in the United States and Implications for Prevention
  441. CHILD ABUSE & NEGLECT, volume 36
  442. Posted: 2012
  443. Crossref
  444. See Zielinski
  445. Crossref
  446. & Macmillan, Hagan
  447. Rose
  448. Including Public Assistance, Supplemental Security Income, and Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program. Ann C. Foster & Arcenis Rojas, Program Participation and Spending Patterns of Families Receiving Government Means-Tested Assistance, MONTHLY LAB. REV, volume 348
  449. Posted: 2018-01
  450. ANNUAL STATISTICAL REPORT ON THE SOCIAL SECURITY DISABILITY INSURANCE PROGRAM 2017 58, volume 61
  451. Posted: 2014
  452. Crossref
  453. Fang et al., supra note 341, at 159. 350. See id. 351. See infra Table 10. 352. Calculated based on the 2019 GDP of the United Stated
  454. comparison to those unexposed, and therefore applies to total number of affected individuals in the cohort. See
  455. Posted: 2020-11-27
  456. Criminal Justice $, volume 7
  457. Crossref
  458. $33,019, volume 906
  459. Crossref
  460. 122) $131 (79,172) $19,671
  461. Mental Health $, volume 7, issue 4
  462. $9, volume 772
  463. Crossref
  464. Total $, volume 194, issue 182
  465. Crossref
  466. See infra Table 11
  467. See Megan, R Holmes
  468. Economic Burden of Child Exposure to Intimate Partner Violence in the United States, 33
  469. J. FAM. VIOLENCE, volume 239
  470. Posted: 2018
  471. Fang
  472. Crossref
  473. Cora Peterson
  474. The Economic Burden of Child Maltreatment in the United States
  475. CHILD ABUSE & NEGLECT, volume 86
  476. Posted: 2015
  477. Crossref
  478. Peterson
  479. Lifetime Economic Burden of Rape Among US Adults, supra note 107, at 692. 357. See Fang et al., supra note 341, at 159; Peterson et al., supra note 355, p. 179 - 80
  480. Peterson
  481. Lifetime Economic Burden of Rape Among US Adults, supra note 107, at 692. 359. See Fang et al., supra note 341
  482. Peterson
  483. Lifetime Economic Burden of Rape Among US Adults, supra note 107
  484. Crossref
  485. E G See, Health Org
  486. WORLD REPORT ON VIOLENCE AND HEALTH, p. 149 - 81
  487. Posted: 2002
  488. Peterson
  489. Lifetime Economic Burden of Rape Among US Adults, supra note 107, at 697. 366. See id. at 691-97. 367. Id. at 692. 368. See supra Section II.A. 369. Peterson et al., supra note 354, at 181. 370. Id. 371. Id. at 181, 183
  490. UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS LAW REVIEW, volume 2021
  491. See Fang
  492. Crossref
  493. See Peterson
  494. Crossref
  495. See Holmes
  496. Crossref
  497. Peterson
  498. Lifetime Economic Burden of Rape Among US Adults, supra note 107
  499. Crossref
  500. Josh Bivens, ; Econ, Pol'y Inst
  501. Public Investment: The Next 'New Thing' for Powering Economic Growth, volume 1, p. 12 - 13
  502. Posted: 2012-04-28
  503. American States Face a Revenue Crisis
  504. ECONOMIST
  505. Posted: 2018-04-17
  506. Elizabeth Mcnichol & Samantha Waxman
  507. States Faced Revenue Shortfalls in 2017 Despite Growing Economy
  508. Crossref
  509. Budget & Pol'y Priorities ; Nat'l Ass'n Of, St
  510. Summary: Fall 2017 Fiscal Survey of States
  511. BUDGET OFFICERS
  512. Posted: 2017-10
  513. Bivens, supra note 376, at 5 (arguing that increased investment in public goods provides substantial future returns)
  514. German Lopez
  515. States Have Steadily Cut Prison Populations Since 2010-Without Increases in Crime, VOX, volume 12
  516. Posted: 2017-01-03
  517. James Austin
  518. How Many Americans Are Unnecessarily Incarcerated?
  519. Posted: 2016
  520. Crossref
  521. Abrams
  522. Crossref
  523. John H Esperian
  524. The Effect of Prison Education Programs on Recidivism, 61
  525. J. CORRECTIONAL EDUC, volume 316
  526. Posted: 2010
  527. Grant Duwe
  528. An Outcome Evaluation of a Prison Work Release Program Estimating Its Effects on Recidivism, Employment, and Cost Avoidance
  529. CRIM. JUST. POL'Y REV, volume 531, p. 548 - 597
  530. Posted: 2015
  531. Peter Wagner & Bernadette Rabuy
  532. Following the Money of Mass Incarceration, PRISON POL'Y INITIATIVE
  533. Posted: 2017-01-25
  534. Cross-sectional Study, logistics regression model
  535. Peterson
  536. Posted: 2017
  537. Corso
  538. Posted: 2007
  539. Cost-of-illness
  540. Farrell & Zimmerman
  541. Mccollister
  542. Crossref
  543. Farrell & Zimmerman
  544. Mccollister
  545. Crossref
  546. Whitfield
  547. Peterson
  548. Crossref
  549. Felitti
  550. Crossref
  551. Peterson
  552. Lifetime Economic Burden of Rape Among US Adults
  553. Crossref
  554. Felitti
  555. Crossref
  556. Peterson
  557. Lifetime Economic Burden of Rape Among US Adults
  558. Crossref
  559. Ford
  560. Crossref
  561. Peterson
  562. Lifetime Economic Burden of Rape Among US Adults
  563. Crossref
  564. Anda
  565. Crossref
  566. Peterson
  567. Lifetime Economic Burden of Rape Among US Adults
  568. Crossref
  569. Anda
  570. Peterson
  571. Lifetime Economic Burden of Rape Among US Adults
  572. Crossref
  573. Felitti
  574. Crossref
  575. Peterson
  576. Lifetime Economic Burden of Rape Among US Adults
  577. Crossref
  578. Corso
  579. UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS LAW REVIEW, volume 2021
  580. Crossref
  581. Felitti
  582. Crossref
  583. Gabriela Dieguez
  584. Felitti
  585. Crossref
  586. Miller
  587. Crossref
  588. Felitti
  589. Crossref
  590. Data & Statistics (WISQARS™): Cost of Injury Reports, CTR. FOR DISEASE CONTROL AND PREVENTION
  591. Posted: 2020-11-27
  592. Crossref
  593. Gilbert
  594. supra note 36. 411. Zhuo et al., supra note 306. 412
  595. Torio, Moore
  596. Barnett, Nurmagambetov ; Peterson
  597. Lifetime Economic Burden of Rape Among US Adults, supra note 107. 417. Felitti et al., supra note 233. 418. Chesson et al., supra note 313. 419. Fang et al., supra note 341, volume 420
  598. Murray & Farrington, supra note 232, at 133, 135.
  599. Id. at 157.
  600. See Laurel Davis & Rebecca J. Shlafer, Mental Health of Adolescents with Currently and Formerly Incarcerated Parents, 54 J. ADOLESCENCE 120, 127–30 (2017).
  601. See id. at 127.
  602. See id.
  603. Rosalyn D. Lee et al., The Impact of Parental Incarceration on the Physical and Mental Health of Young Adults, 131 PEDIATRICS 1188, 1191–92 (2013).
  604. CONG. BUDGET OFF., THE VETERANS HEALTH ADMINISTRATION’S TREATMENT OF PTSD AND TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURY AMONG RECENT COMBAT VETERANS 17–20 (2012), https://www.cbo.gov/sites/default/files/cbofiles/attachments/02-09-PTSD.pdf [https://perma.cc/2YEV-QEGX]; Costs of Outpatient Treatment, FOUNDS. RECOVERY NETWORK, https://dualdiagnosis.org/dual-diagnosis-treatment/outpatient-cost/ (last visited Nov. 27, 2020) [https://perma.cc/4DBT-Z4D4].
  605. CONG. BUDGET OFF., supra note at 19 tbl. 2. Adjusted to 2017 dollars, using the AIER Cost of Living Calculator.
  606. See, e.g., Phaedra S. Corso et al., Medical Costs and Productivity Losses Due to Interpersonal and Self-Directed Violence in the United States, 32 AM. J. PREVENTATIVE MED. 474, 476 (2007).
  607. Anda et al., supra note 232, at 174, 175.
  608. E.g., id. at 182.
  609. 276. Paul E. Greenberg et al., The Economic Burden of Anxiety Disorders in the 1990s, 60 J. CLINICAL PSYCHIATRY 427, 429 (1999); Paul E. Greenberg et al., The Economic Burden of Adults with Major Depressive Disorder in the United States (2005 and 2010), 76 J. CLINICAL PSYCHIATRY 155, 156–57, 159 (2015).
  610. Measured by an answer “yes” to the question, “Do you have much trouble with nervousness?”
  611. Anda et al., supra note 232, at 177–78 tbl.2.
  612. Calculation based on the findings of Peterson, et al., Lifetime Economic Burden of Rape Among US Adults, supra note 107, at 693–95 tbl.1.
  613. Measured by an answer “yes” to the question, “Have you had or do you now have depression or feel down in the dumps?”
  614. Anda et al., supra note 224, at 177–78 tbl.2.
  615. Calculation based on the findings of Peterson, et al., Lifetime Economic Burden of Rape Among US Adults, supra note 107, at 693–95 tbl.1.
  616. Include all reported non-fatal suicide attempts.
  617. Felitti et al., supra note 233, at 252 tbl.4.
  618. Includes both medical treatment and loss of productivity in cases of non-fatal suicide attempts. Calculation based on the findings of Peterson et al., Lifetime Economic Burden of Rape Among US Adults, supra note 107, at 693–95 tbl.1; Number of Deaths and Estimated Average and Total Lifetime Costs, United States, 2010, CTRS. FOR DISEASE CONTROL & PREVENTION, https://www.cdc.gov/injury/wisqars/nonfatal.html (last visited Nov. 27, 2020) [https://perma.cc/24CZ-AM6E]; Corso et al., supra note 275, at 477.
  619. Natalie Slopen et al., Childhood Adversity and Cell-Mediated Immunity in Young Adulthood: Does Type and Timing Matter?, 28 BRAIN, BEHAV., & IMMUNITY 63, 63–64, 68 (2013); Molly L. Paras et al., Sexual Abuse and Lifetime Diagnosis of Somatic Disorders: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis, 302 J. AM. MED. ASS’N 550, 550, 555 (2009); Alanna D. Hager & Marsha G. Runtz, Physical and Psychological Maltreatment in Childhood and Later Health Problems in Women: An Exploratory Investigation of the Roles of Perceived Stress and Coping Strategies, 36 CHILD ABUSE & NEGLECT 393, 393, 400 (2012); Renée Boynton-Jarrett et al., Child and Adolescent Abuse in Relation to Obesity in Adulthood: The Black Women’s Health Study, 130 PEDIATRICS 245, 251 (2012); Roberto Maniglio, The Impact of Child Sexual Abuse on Health: A Systematic Review of Reviews, 29 CLINICAL PSYCH. REV. 647, 654 (2009).
  620. Felitti et al., supra note 233, at 250, 253 tbl.5.
  621. Id. at 250, 253 tbl.7.
  622. Id. at 249, 252 tbl.4.
  623. Id. at 250, 254–55.
  624. See id. at 250; Anda et al., supra note 232, at 174; Gilbert et al., supra note 105, at 346.
  625. Gilbert et al., supra note 107, at 346.
  626. Sophia Miryam Schüssler-Fiorenza Rose et al., Adverse Childhood Experiences & Disability in U.S. Adults, 6(8) AM. ACAD. PHYS. MED. & REHAB. 670, 673 (2014).
  627. See THERESA DOLEZAL ET AL., ACAD. ON VIOLENCE & ABUSE, HIDDEN COSTS IN HEALTH CARE: THE ECONOMIC IMPACT OF VIOLENCE AND ABUSE 6 (2009).
  628. See id. at 8.
  629. Felitti et al., supra note 233, at 247.
  630. See id. at 250; Gilbert et al., supra note 105, at 345–46; Anda et al., supra note 232, at 178.
  631. Felitti et al., supra note 233, at 254 tbl.7.
  632. Calculated as the average costs of treatment during the four years following diagnosis, based on the three most common types of cancer (lung, breast, and colorectal). See GABRIELA DIEGUEZ ET AL., MILLIMAN RSCH. REP., A MULTI-YEAR LOOK AT THE COST BURDEN OF CANCER CARE 4 (2017), https://milliman-cdn.azureedge.net/-/media/milliman/importedfiles/uploadedfiles/insight/2017/cost-burden-cancer-care.ashx [https:// perma.cc/DTY9-CAFM].
  633. Felitti et al., supra note 233, at 254 tbl.7.
  634. Discounted lifetime cost of a typical COPD patient (i.e., sixty years old, former smoker, GOLD stage I or II). Estimate is based on the cost for the male population, as it is lower than female costs. See Jeffrey D. Miller et al., Lifetime Costs and Impact on Life Expectancy of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) in the U.S.: Projections from a Decision-Analytic Model, 9 VALUE IN HEALTH A93 (2006).
  635. Felitti et al., supra note 233, at 255 tbl.8.
  636. Calculated using Data & Statistics (WISQARS™): Cost of Injury Reports, CTRS. FOR DISEASE CONTROL & PREVENTION, https://wisqars.cdc.gov:8443/costT/ (last visited Nov. 27, 2020).
  637. Although the original ACE study found diabetes to have a non-significant effect for children exposed to 1 ACE, and more recent study with a much larger sample found a statistically significant effect under the 1-3 ACE category. See Felitti et al., supra note 233, at 250. Thus, we have opted to include diabetes in the analysis.
  638. Gilbert et al., supra note 105, at 348 tbl.2.
  639. Calculated as the average lifetime medical costs of treating type 2 diabetes. See Xiaohui Zhuo et al., Lifetime Direct Medical Costs of Treating Type 2 Diabetes and Diabetic Complications, 45 AM. J. PREV. MED. 253, 256–57 (2013).
  640. Including heart attack or use of nitroglycerin for exertional chest pain. Felitti et al., supra note 233, at 248.
  641. Gilbert et al., supra note 105, at 348 tbl.2.
  642. Calculated as the average cost of a single hospital stay for the treatment of Myocardial Infraction in 2013. See Celeste M. Torio & Brian J. Moore, National Inpatient Hospital Costs: The Most Expensive Conditions by Payer, 2013, AGENCY HEALTHCARE RSCH. & QUALITY (May 2016), https://www.hcup-us.ahrq.gov/reports/ statbriefs/sb204-Most-Expensive-Hospital-Conditions.jsp. [https://perma.cc/3XWT-DBGK].
  643. Gilbert et al., supra note 105, at 348 tbl.2.
  644. Reflects the lifetime cost of asthma treatment, including outpatient and inpatient medical care, and prescribed medications. Sarah Beth L. Barnett & Tursynbek A. Nurmagambetov, Costs of Asthma in the United States: 2002-2007, 127 J. ALLERGY & CLINICAL IMMUNOLOGY 145, 147 (2011); Peterson et al., Lifetime Economic Burden of Rape Among US Adults, supra note 107, at 694 tbl.1.
  645. Felitti et al., supra note 233, at 253 tbl. 5.
  646. Calculated as the average total cost per year of the 8 most common STIs. See Harrell W. Chesson et al., The Estimated Direct Medical Cost of Sexually Transmitted Diseases Among American Youth, 2000, 36 PERSPS. SEXUAL & REPROD. HEALTH 11, 12 (2004).
  647. David S. Zielinski, Child Maltreatment and Adult Socioeconomic Well-Being, 33 CHILD ABUSE & NEGLECT 666, 671 (2009); see also Ross Macmillan & John Hagan, Violence in the Transition to Adulthood: Adolescent Victimization, Education, and Socioeconomic Attainment in Later Life, 14 J. RSCH. ON ADOLESCENCE 127, 137–52 (2004) (discussing studies which measure the effect on children exposed to direct victimization).
  648. See supra Section III.A.
  649. See Gilad et al., supra note 1, at 60–61; Zielinski, supra note 314, at 667; WILLIAM H. SEWELL & ROBERT M. HAUSER, EDUCATION, OCCUPATION, AND EARNINGS: ACHIEVEMENT IN THE EARLY CAREER (H.H. Winsborough ed.,1975); W. Norton Grubb, Postsecondary Education and the Sub-Baccalaureate Labor Market: Corrections and Extensions, 14 ECON. EDUC. REV. 285, 293 (1995); Orley Ashenfelter & Cecilia Rouse, Income, Schooling, and Ability: Evidence from a New Sample of Identical Twins, 113 Q.J. ECON. 253, 281 (1998); Stacey Berg Dale & Alan B. Krueger, Estimating the Payoff to Attending a More Selective College: An Application of Selection on Observables and Unobservables, 117 Q.J. ECON. 1491 (2002); JENNIFER CHEESEMAN DAY & ERIC C. NEWBURGER, U.S. CENSUS BUREAU, THE BIG PAYOFF: EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT AND SYNTHETIC ESTIMATES OF WORK-LIFE EARNINGS 2 (2002), https://www.census.gov/prod/2002pubs/p23-210.pdf [https:// perma.cc/V4RZ-7F8H]; Macmillan & Hagan, supra note 314, at 152; Metzler et al., supra note 201, at 144, 146– 47; Currie & Widom, supra note 36, at 117; cf. Avshalom Caspi et al., Continuities and Consequences of Interactional Styles Across the Life Course, 57 J. PERSONALITY 375 (1989); Yong Liu et al., Relationship Between Adverse Childhood Experiences and Unemployment Among Adults from Five US States, 48 SOC. PSYCHIATRY & PSYCHIATRIC EPIDEMIOLOGY 357, 364 (2013).
  650. See Gilad et al., supra note 1, at 55–56.
  651. Stacy Overstreet & Shawnee Braun, A Preliminary Examination of the Relationship Between Exposure to Community Violence and Academic Functioning, 14 SCH. PSYCH. Q. 380, 380 (1999); Metzler et. al., supra note 201, at 141; Manuel E. Jimenez et al., Adverse Experiences in Early Childhood and Kindergarten Outcomes, 137 PEDIATRICS 1, 1 (2016); Allwood & Widom, supra note 194, at 551; Cynthia M. Perez & Cathy Spatz Widom, Childhood Victimization and Long-Term Intellectual and Academic Outcomes, 18 CHILD ABUSE & NEGLECT 617, 626 (1994); Danielle H. Dallaire, Children with Incarcerated Mothers: Developmental Outcomes, Special Challenges and Recommendations, 28 J. APPLIED DEV. PSYCH. 15, 17 (2007); Larissa A. Borofsky et al., Community Violence Exposure and Adolescents’ School Engagement and Academic Achievement Over Time, 3 PSYCH. VIOLENCE 381, 381 (2013); David Schwartz & Andrea Hopmeyer Gorman, Community Violence Exposure and Children’s Academic Functioning, 95 J. EDUC. PSYCH. 163, 172 (2003); Herbert C. Covey et al., Effects of Adolescent Physical Abuse, Exposure to Neighborhood Violence, and Witnessing Parental Violence on Adult Socioeconomic Status, 18 CHILD MALTREATMENT 85, 92–93 (2013); Natasha K. Bowen & Gary L. Bowen, Effects of Crime and Violence in Neighborhoods and Schools on the School Behavior and Performance of Adolescents, 14 J. ADOLESCENT RSCH. progress-and-classroom-behavior.pdf?sfvrsn=1828de3f_12 [https://perma.cc/4NAE-3HP8]; Nadine J. Burke et al., The Impact of Adverse Childhood Experiences on an Urban Pediatric Population, 35 CHILD ABUSE & NEGLECT 408, 408 (2011); Tracy Vaillancourt & Patricia McDougall, The Link Between Childhood Exposure to Violence and Academic Achievement: Complex Pathways, 41 J. ABNORMAL CHILD PSYCH. 1177, 1177 (2013); Holly Foster & John Hagan, The Mass Incarceration of Parents in America: Issues of Race/Ethnicity, Collateral Damage to Children, and Prisoner Reentry, 623 ANNALS AM. ACAD. POL. & SOC. SCI. 179, 179 (2009); Lisa R. Kiesel et al., The Relationship Between Child Maltreatment, Intimate Partner Violence Exposure, and Academic Performance, 10 J. PUB. CHILD WELFARE 434, 434 (2016); Stephen J. Lepore & Wendy Kliewer, Violence Exposure, Sleep Disturbance, and Poor Academic Performance in Middle School, 41 J. ABNORMAL CHILD PSYCH. 1179, 1179 (2013); Macmillan & Hagan, supra note 346, at 127; Mears & Siennick, supra note 232, at 3.
  652. Moffitt, supra note 140, at 1625; McGaha-Garnett, supra note 318, at 2; Kathryn R. Wilson et al., The Traumatic Stress Response in Child Maltreatment and Resultant Neuropsychological Effects, 16 AGGRESSION & VIOLENT BEHAV. 87, 87 (2011).
  653. Moffitt, supra note 140, at 1625.
  654. Id. at 1625; Karestan C. Koenen et al., Domestic Violence Is Associated with Environmental Suppression of IQ in Young Children, 15 DEV. & PSYCHOPATHOLOGY 297, 297 (2013); Normand J. Carrey et al., Physiological and Cognitive Correlates of Child Abuse, 34 J. AM. ACAD. CHILD & ADOLESCENT PSYCHIATRY 1067, 1067 (1995); Virginia Delaney-Black et al., Violence Exposure, Trauma, and IQ and/or Reading Deficits Among Urban Children, 156 ARCHIVES PEDIATRIC & ADOLESCENT MED. 280, 280–95 (2002); Wilson et al., supra note 319, at 93.
  655. Moffitt, supra note 140, at 1626; Koenen et al., supra note 321, at 297; Wilson et al., supra note 319, at 93–94; Perez & Widom, supra note 318, at 617.
  656. Moffitt, supra note 140, at 1625–26; Wilson et al., supra note 319, at 92.
  657. Cf. Tenah K.A. Hunt et al., Adverse Childhood Experiences and Behavioral Problems in Middle Childhood, 67 CHILD ABUSE & NEGLECT 391 (2017); Jimenez et al., supra note 318, at 1.
  658. imenez et al., supra note 318, at 1.
  659. Id.
  660. Allwood & Widom, supra note 194, at 551; Lansford et al., supra note 194, at 238–40; Mears & Sinnick, supra note 232, at 22.
  661. (1999); Murray & Farrington, supra note 232, at 135; Rucker C. Johnson, Ever-Increasing Levels of Parental Incarceration the Consequences and for Children, in DO PRISONS MAKE US SAFER? THE BENEFITS AND COSTS OF THE PRISON BOOM 177, 178 (Steven Raphael & Michael A. Stoll eds., 2009) ; Joseph M. Boden et al., Exposure to Childhood Sexual and Physical Abuse and Subsequent Educational Achievement Outcomes, 31 CHILD ABUSE & NEGLECT 1101, 1101 (2007);
  662. Hallam Hurt et al., Exposure to Violence: Psychological and Academic Correlates in Child Witnesses, ARCHIVES PEDIATRIC & ADOLESCENT MED. 1351, 1351 (2001);
  663. Currie & Widom, supra note 36, at 111; LEILA MORSY & RICHARD ROTHSTEIN, ECON. POL’Y INST., MASS INCARCERATION AND CHILDREN’S OUTCOMES: CRIMINAL JUSTICE POLICY IS EDUCATION POLICY 1 (Dec. 2016);
  664. Rosa Minhyo Cho, Maternal Incarceration and Children’s Adolescent Outcomes: Timing and Dosage, 84 SOC. SERV. REV. 257, 257 (2010);
  665. Niclas Olofsson et al., Physical and Psychological Symptoms and Learning Difficulties in Children of Women Exposed and Non-Exposed to Violence: A Population-Based Study, 56 INT’L J. PUB. HEALTH 89, 89 (2011);
  666. Christopher C. Henrich et al., The Association of Community Violence Exposure with Middle-School Achievement: A Prospective Study, 25 APPLIED DEV. PSYCH. 327, 327 (2004);
  667. Alissa C. Huth-Bocks et al., The Direct and Indirect Effects of Domestic Violence on Young Children’s Intellectual Functioning, 16 J. FAM. VIOLENCE 269, 269 (2001); Luster et al., supra note 232, at 1323;
  668. Valerie McGahaGarnett, The Effects of Violence on Academic Progress and Classroom Behavior: From a Parent’s Perspective, VISTAS 1 (2013), https://www.counseling.org/docs/default-source/vistas/the-effects-of-violence-on-academic
  669. PA. STATE INTERAGENCY COORDINATING COUNCIL FOR EARLY INTERVENTION, ANNUAL REPORT SUBMITTED TO THE GOVERNOR 2 (2015–2016). Adjusted to 2017 dollars, using The American Institute of Economic Research (AIER) Cost of Living Calculator.
  670. Macmillan & Hagan, supra note 314, at 131–32; see Zielinski, supra note 314, at 675; Ashenfelter & Rouse, supra note 316, at 281; Dale & Krueger, supra note 316, at 1525; Day & Newburger, supra note 316, at 2; SEWELL & HAUSER, supra note 316, at 189; Grubb, supra note 316, at 290.
  671. Ross Macmillan, Adolescent Victimization and Income Deficits in Adulthood: Rethinking the Costs of Criminal Violence from a Life-Course Perspective, 38 CRIMINOLOGY 553, 570 (2000).
  672. See, e.g., Currie & Widom, supra note 36, at 117; Foster et al., supra note 86; Deborah Gorman-Smith & Patrick Tolan, The Role of Exposure to Community Violence and Developmental Problems Among Inner-City Youth, 10 DEV. PSYCHOPATHOLOGY 101, 101 (1998).
  673. See infra notes 335–41.
  674. Currie & Widom, supra note 36, at 117.
  675. Macmillan, supra note 330, at 566, 570. 335. Currie & Widom, supra note 36, at 117.
  676. Zielinski, supra note 314, at 671.
  677. Daniel B. Hernman et al., Adverse Childhood Experiences: Are They Risk Factors for Adult Homelessness?, 87 AM. J. PUB. HEALTH 249, 252 (1997).
  678. Mears & Siennick, supra note 232, at 22. 339. Macmillan & Hagan, supra note 314, at 150; Zielinski, supra note 314, at 674; Liu et al., supra note 316, at 361.
  679. See infra Table 9.
  680. Xiangming Fang et al., The Economic Burden of Child Maltreatment in the United States and Implications for Prevention, 36 CHILD ABUSE & NEGLECT 156, 159 (2012). 342. See Zielinski, supra note 314. 343. See id.
  681. Macmillan & Hagan, supra note 314, at 151.
  682. Rose et al., supra note 293; Gilbert et al., supra note 105, at 348.
  683. Including Public Assistance, Supplemental Security Income, and Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program. Ann C. Foster & Arcenis Rojas, Program Participation and Spending Patterns of Families Receiving Government Means-Tested Assistance, MONTHLY LAB. REV. (Jan. 2018), https://www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/ 2018/article/program-participation-and-spending-patterns-of-families-receiving-means-tested-assistance.htm [https://perma.cc/88DH-CPVL].
  684. Based on the Bureau of Labor Statistics 2014 estimates, converted to 2017 dollars. See id. 348. U.S. SOC. SEC. ADMIN., ANNUAL STATISTICAL REPORT ON THE SOCIAL SECURITY DISABILITY INSURANCE PROGRAM 2017 58, 61 tbl.20 (2017), https://www.ssa.gov/policy/docs/statcomps/di_asr/2017/ sect01c.pdf [https://perma.cc/7V5Y-R7EZ].
  685. This outcome calculates the average effect on the entire population of children exposed individuals, in comparison to those unexposed, and therefore applies to total number of affected individuals in the cohort. See, e.g., Fang et al., supra note 341, at 159.
  686. Calculated based on the 2019 GDP of the United Stated, which amounted to $21.43 trillion. Gross Domestic Product, Fourth Quarter and Year 2019 (Advance Estimate), BUREAU OF ECONOMIC ANALYSIS, https://www.bea.gov/news/2020/gross-domestic-product-fourth-quarter-and-year-2019-advance-estimate#:~:text=Current%2Ddollar%20GDP%20increased%204.1,table%201%20and%20table%203 (last visited Nov. 27, 2020) [https://perma.cc/W2JL-35RF].
  687. See infra Table 11.
  688. See Megan R. Holmes et al., Economic Burden of Child Exposure to Intimate Partner Violence in the United States, 33 J. FAM. VIOLENCE 239, 239 (2018).
  689. Fang et al., supra note 341, at 159; Cora Peterson et al., The Economic Burden of Child Maltreatment in the United States, 2015, 86 CHILD ABUSE & NEGLECT 178, 178 (2018).
  690. Peterson et al., Lifetime Economic Burden of Rape Among US Adults, supra note 107, at 692.
  691. See Fang et al., supra note 341, at 159; Peterson et al., supra note 355, at 179–80.
  692. Peterson et al., Lifetime Economic Burden of Rape Among US Adults, supra note 107, at 692.
  693. 359. See Fang et al., supra note 341, at 160.
  694. Id. at 160, tbl.1.
  695. See id.
  696. Id.
  697. Peterson et al., Lifetime Economic Burden of Rape Among US Adults, supra note 107, at 697.
  698. See, e.g., WORLD HEALTH ORG., WORLD REPORT ON VIOLENCE AND HEALTH 149–81 (2002), https:// www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/violence/global_campaign/en/chap6.pdf [https://perma.cc/D59PYZEN].
  699. Peterson et al., Lifetime Economic Burden of Rape Among US Adults, supra note 107, at 697.
  700. See id. at 691–97.
  701. Id. at 692.
  702. See supra Section II.A.
  703. Peterson et al., supra note 354, at 181.
  704. Id.
  705. Id. at 181, 183.
  706. See Fang et al., supra note 341.
  707. See Peterson et al., supra note 354.
  708. See Holmes et al., supra note 354.
  709. Peterson et al., Lifetime Economic Burden of Rape Among US Adults, supra note 107, at 697.
  710. Josh Bivens, Public Investment: The Next ‘New Thing’ for Powering Economic Growth, ECON. POL’Y INST., 1, 12–13 (Apr. 28, 2012), https://www.epi.org/files/2012/bp338-public-investments.pdf [https://perma. cc/P7AS-TAU2].
  711. American States Face a Revenue Crisis, ECONOMIST, (Apr. 17, 2018), https://www.economist. BUDGET & POL’Y PRIORITIES, (Oct. 2017); Summary: Fall 2017 Fiscal Survey of States, NAT’L ASS’N OF ST. BUDGET OFFICERS, (Dec. 14, 2017), https://higherlogicdownload.s3.amazonaws.com/NASBO/9d2d2db1-c943- 4f1b-b750-0fca152d64c2/UploadedImages/Issue%20Briefs%20/Summary_-_Fall_2017_Fiscal_Survey.pdf [https://perma.cc/3LM3-2579].
  712. See, e.g., Bivens, supra note 376, at 5 (arguing that increased investment in public goods provides substantial future returns).
  713. German Lopez, States Have Steadily Cut Prison Populations Since 2010– Without Increases in Crime, VOX (Jan. 3, 2017, 12:20 PM), https://www.vox.com/policy-and-politics/2017/1/3/14153196/prison-mass-incarceration-2015 [https://perma.cc/45GU-9WV4].
  714. James Austin et al., How Many Americans Are Unnecessarily Incarcerated?, BRENAN CTR. FOR JUST. (2016), https://www.brennancenter.org/sites/default/files/publications/Unnecessarily_Incarcerated.pdf [https:// perma.cc/PK98-PSQ5]; Abrams, supra note 96, at 911.
  715. John H. Esperian, The Effect of Prison Education Programs on Recidivism, 61 J. CORRECTIONAL EDUC. 316, 332 (2010); Grant Duwe, An Outcome Evaluation of a Prison Work Release Program Estimating Its Effects on Recidivism, Employment, and Cost Avoidance, 26 CRIM. JUST. POL’Y REV. 531, 532 (2015).
  716. Esperian, supra note 381, at 332. 383. Duwe, supra note 381, at 548–49.
  717. Peter Wagner & Bernadette Rabuy, Following the Money of Mass Incarceration, PRISON POL’Y INITIATIVE (Jan. 25, 2017), https://www.prisonpolicy.org/reports/money.html [https://perma.cc/QQ7G-HWRA].com/united-states/2018/04/07/american-states-face-a-revenue-crisis [https://perma.cc/9H3C-SASQ]; Elizabeth McNichol & Samantha Waxman, States Faced Revenue Shortfalls in 2017 Despite Growing Economy, CTR. ON
  718. Farrell & Zimmerman, supra note 198.
  719. McCollister et al., supra note 205..
  720. Farrell & Zimmerman, supra note 200.
  721. McCollister et al., supra note 205.
  722. Whitfield et al., supra note 198, at 166.
  723. Peterson et al., supra note 105.
  724. Felitti et al., supra note 233, at 248.
  725. Peterson et al., Lifetime Economic Burden of Rape Among US Adults, supra note 107.
  726. Felitti et al., supra note 233.
  727. Peterson et al., Lifetime Economic Burden of Rape Among US Adults, supra note 107.
  728. Ford, et al., supra note 244.
  729. Peterson et al., Lifetime Economic Burden of Rape Among US Adults, supra note 107.
  730. Anda et al., supra note 234.
  731. Peterson et al., Lifetime Economic Burden of Rape Among US Adults, supra note 107.
  732. Anda et al., supra note 232.
  733. Peterson et al., Lifetime Economic Burden of Rape Among US Adults, supra note 107.
  734. Felitti et al., supra note 233.
  735. Peterson et al., Lifetime Economic Burden of Rape Among US Adults, supra note 107.
  736. Corso et al., supra note 273.
  737. Felitti et al., supra note 233.
  738. Gabriela Dieguez et al., supra note 299.
  739. Felitti et al., supra note 233.
  740. Miller et al., supra note 301.
  741. Felitti et al., supra note 233.
  742. Data & Statistics (WISQARS™): Cost of Injury Reports, CTR. FOR DISEASE CONTROL AND PREVENTION, https://wisqars.cdc.gov:8443/costT/ (last visited Nov. 27, 2020).
  743. Gilbert et al., supra note 36.
  744. Zhuo et al., supra note 306.
  745. Gilbert et al., supra note 36.
  746. Torio & Moore, supra note 309.
  747. Gilbert et al., supra note 36.
  748. Barnett & Nurmagambetov, supra note 311.
  749. Peterson et al., Lifetime Economic Burden of Rape Among US Adults, supra note 107.
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  752. Fang et al., supra note 341.

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