Light-Emitting Diodes in the Solid-State Lighting Systems

Author(s): Amelia Carolina Sparavigna

Red and green light-emitting diodes (LEDs) had been produced for several decades before blue emitting diodes, suitable for lighting applications, were widely available. Today, we have the possibility of combining the three fundamental colours to have a bright white light. And therefore, a new form of lightning, the solid-state lightning, has now become a reality. Here we discuss LEDs and some of their applications in displays and lamps.

Semiconductors, Light-Emitting Diodes, Solid-State Lighting Systems, LEDs, GaAs, GaN, InGaN

1. Vv. Aa., www.nobelprize.org/ nobel_prizes/ physics/laureates/ 2014/press.html
2. R. Courtland, The Blue LED Has Many Parents, 13 Oct 2014, IEEE Spectrum
3. C. Lécuyer and T. Ueyama, The Logics of Materials Innovation: The Case of Gallium Nitride and Blue Light Emitting Diodes, Historical Studies in the Natural Sciences, 2013, Volume 43, Issue 3, pages 243-280
4. H. Amano, N. Sawaki, I. Akasaki and Y. Toyoda, Metalorganic Vapor Phase Epitaxial Growth of a High Quality GaN Film Using an AlN Buffer Layer, Appl. Phys. Lett., 1986, Volume 48, Issue 5, pages 353-356
5. A.C. Sparavigna, Carbon-Arc Light as the Electric Light of 1870, International Journal of Sciences, 2014, Volume 3, Issue 10, pages 1-7
6. S. Speight, LED Industry and Lighting Technologies, 2010, ISG Illuminations System Inc
7. A.C. Sparavigna, Carbon Dioxide Concentration and Emissions in Atmosphere: Trends and Recurrence Plots, International Journal of Sciences, 2014, Volume 3, Issue 10, pages 8-15
8. Vv. Aa., Compact Fluorescent Lamp, Wikipedia, 2014
9. H.J. Round, A Note on Carborundum, Electrical World, 1907, Volume XLIX, Issue 6, page 309. This note is telling: “during an investigation of the unsymmetrical passage of current through a contact of carborundum and other substances a curious phenomenon was noted. On applying a potential of 10 volts between two points on a crystal of carborundum, the crystal gave out a yellowish light. Only one or two specimens could be found which gave a bright glow on such a low voltage, but with 110 volts a large number could be found to glow. In some crystals, only edges gave the light and others gave instead of a yellow light green, orange or blue. In all cases tested, the glow appears to come from the negative pole, a bright blue-green spark appearing at the positive pole. In a single crystal, if contact is made near the center with the negative pole, and the positive pole is put in contact at any other place, only one section of the crystal will glow and that the same section wherever the positive pole is placed. There seems to be some connection between the above effect and the e.m.f. produced by a junction of carborundum and another conductor when heated by a direct or alternating current: but the connection may be only secondary as an obvious explanation of the e.m.f. effect is the thermoelectric one. The writer would be glad of references to any published account of an investigation of this or any allied phenomena. New York, N.Y. H.J. Round
10. N. Zheludev, The Life and Times of the LED - A 100-Year History, Nature Photonics, 2007, Volume 1, Issue April, pages 189-192
11. R. Braunstein, Radiative Transitions in Semiconductors, Physical Review, 1955, Volume 99, Issue 6, Pages 1892-1893
12. Vv. Aa., Light-Emitting Diode, Wikipedia, 2014
13. N. Holonyak Jr., Lemelson-MIT Prize Winner, Lemenson-MIT Program
14. T.S. Perry, M. George Craford Biography. IEEE Spectrum, 1995, Volume 32, Issue 2, pages 52–55
15. Vv. Aa., Seven-Segment Display, Wikipedia, 2014
16. A.C. Sparavigna, James Fergason, a Pioneer in Advancing of Liquid Crystal Technology, arXiv:1310.7569 [physics.hist-ph], 2013
17. E.F. Schubert, Light-Emitting Diodes, Cambridge University Press, 2003
18. S. Nakamura, The Roles of Structural Imperfections in InGaN-Based Blue Light-Emitting Diodes and Laser Diodes, Science, 14 August 1998, Volume 281, pages 956-961
19. J. Li, J. Wang, Z. Liu and A. Poppe, Solid-State Physics Fundamentals of LED Thermal Behavior, in Thermal Management for LED Applications, Clemens J.M. Lasance and András Poppe Editors, Springer Science & Business Media, 17/set/2013, pages 15-24
20. J.M. Ziman, I Principi della Teoria dei Solidi, Tamburini Editore, 1975
21. S. Assali, I. Zardo, S. Plissard, M.A. Verheijen, J.E.M. Haverkort and E.P.A.M. Bakkers, Wurtzite Gallium Phosphide Has a Direct-Band Gap, 2013 International Conference on Indium Phosphide and Related Materials (IPRM), Kobe, 19-23 May 2013, pages 1-2
22. S. Assali, I. Zardo, S. Plissard, D. Kriegner, M.A. Verheijen, G. Bauer, A. Meijerink, A. Belabbes, F. Bechstedt, J.E.M. Haverkort, and E.P.A.M. Bakkers, Direct Band Gap Wurtzite Gallium Phosphide Nanowires, Nano Lett., 2013, Volume 13, Issue 4, pages 1559-1563
23. Vv. Aa., P-n Junction, Wikipedia, 2014
24. S.A. Kukushkin, A.V. Osipov, V.N. Bessolov, B.K. Medvedev, V.K. Nevolin and K.A. Tcarik, Substrates for Epitaxy of Galliun Nitirde: New Materials and Techniques, Rev. Adv. Mater. Sci., 2008, Volume 17, pages 1-32
25. D.R. Vij, Handbook of Electroluminescent Materials, CRC Press, 2004
26. J.-S. Ha, GaN and ZnO Light Emitters, in Oxide and Nitride Semiconductors: Processing, Properties, and Applications, Takafumi Yao and Soon-Ku Hong Editors, Oxide and Nitride Semiconductors, Advances in Materials Research, Volume 12, 2009, pages 415-457, Springer Science & Business Media
27. C.J.M. Lasance and A. Poppe, Thermal Management for LED Applications, Springer Science & Business Media, 2013
28. E.A. Taub, LED Bulbs for the Home Near the Marketplace, The New York Times, May 16, 2010
29. A. Pohl, SMT Lamps: Merging Through-Hole and Surface-Mount LED Technology, 04/06/2011, ECNMAG.com
30. K.T. Kamtekar, A.P. Monkman and M.R. Bryce, Recent Advances in White Organic Light-Emitting Materials and Devices (WOLEDs), Advanced Materials, 2010, Volume 22, Issue 5, pages 572-582
31. Vv. Aa., LED Television Display, Wikipedia, 2014
32. Vv. Aa., La Cappella Sistina Risplende di Nuova Luce Grazie a 7mila Led, 30 Ottobre 2014, Il Sole 24 Ore, on-line
33. L. Moloney, The Sistine Chapel in Rome Gets New Lights, September 25, 2014, The Wall Street Journal, on-line
34. Vv. Aa., LED Art, Wikipedia, 2014
35. S. Keeping, Will Silicon Substrates Push LED Lighting Into the Mainstream?, 09/24/2013, ArticleLibrary, Digi-Key Corporation
36. S. Nakamura and M.R. Krames, History of Gallium–Nitride-Based Light-Emitting Diodes for Illumination, Proceedings of the IEEE, 2013, Volume 101, Issue 10 , pages 2211-2220
37. S. Keeping, Material and Manufacturing Improvements Enhance LED Efficiency, 01/15/2013, ArticleLibrary, Digi-Key Corporation
38. C. Jia, T. Yu, H. Lu, C. Zhong, Y. Sun, Y. Tong and G. Zhang, Performance Improvement of GaN-Based LEDs with Step Stage InGaN/GaN Strain Relief Layers in GaN-Based Blue LEDs, Optics Express, 2013, Volume 21, Issue 7, pages 8444-8449
39. S.D. Lester, F.A. Ponce, M.G. Craford and D. A. Steigerwald, High Dislocation Densities in High Efficiency GaN‐Based Light‐Emitting Diodes, Appl. Phys. Lett., 1995, Volume 66, Issue 10, pages 1249-1251
40. G. Kim, E. Park, J.H. Kim, J.-H. Bae, D.H. Kang and B.G. Park, Analysis of Trap and its Impact on InGaN-Based Blue Light-Emitting Diodes Using Current-Transient Methodology, Japanese Journal of Applied Physics, 2014, Volume 53, pages 062101-1-062101-5
41. D.V.P. McLaughlin and J.M. Pearce, Progress in Indium Gallium Nitride Materials for Solar Photovoltaic Energy Conversion, Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A, 2013, Volume 44, Issue 4, pages 1947-1954
42. A. Bhuiyan, K. Sugita, A. Hashimoto and A. Yamamoto, InGaN Solar Cells: Present State of the Art and Important Challenges, IEEE Journal of Photovoltaics, 2012, Volume 2, Issue 3, pages 276-293
43. L. Redaelli, A. Mukhtarova, S. Valdueza-Felip, A. Ajay, C. Bougerol, C. Himwas, J. Faure-Vincent, C. Durand, J. Eymery and E. Monroy, Effect of the Quantum Well Thickness on the Performance of InGaN Photovoltaic Cells, Appl. Phys. Lett., 2014, Volume 105, pages 131105-1-131105-4